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The South Asian region comprises seven countries: Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. The combined population of these countries is more than one billion—approximately one fifth of the world's population (Haub and Kent, 1988). Spiralling population growth is placing even more pressure on governments of the region in their efforts to provide adequate resources, both human and physical, to meet the escalating demand for education and training. The economic realities of trying to provide universal education through conventional systems (Sharma, 1989) have forced governments to search for cheaper, more efficient ways to provide fair and equitable access to education. It is therefore not surprising that governments in the region have been increasingly attracted to distance education.
Distance education is now an essential feature of the national education systems of three countries in South Asia. Open universities are already well established in India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka. The governments of Bangladesh and Nepal are actively considering the development of open universities, while the governments of Bhutan and the Maldives have initiated plans to expand their currently limited distance education operations. All governments have independently delineated policies and plans aimed at expanding distance education activities. This paper seeks to investigate the potential for achieving regional co-operation by reviewing existing distance education initiatives, delineating the apparent commonality in outstanding human resources development needs at the national level and outlining the mutual benefits that could accrue from such an initiative.
Distance Education and Manpower Development Needs in South Asia
This brief review focusses primarily on the fundamental characteristics of the distance education system in the countries of the region, including range of courses offered, target populations, and existing development needs.
Bangladesh
The Government of Bangladesh is seriously considering the establishment of a national open university. At present, the only system of formal distance education is that of the Bangladesh Institute for Distance Education (BIDE) aimed primarily at in-service training of teachers, leading to a bachelor of education (B.Ed.). As reported by Sirajul Islam (1987), the first two intakes in July 1985 and July 1986, respectively, led to an enrolment of 6,498 students from a pool of applicants of more than 20,000. Of these, 4,319 have completed the course successfully. It is estimated, however, that more than 70,000 secondary school teachers remain untrained. There is an obvious need to expand of such an operation.
Potential scope for the development of distance education in Bangladesh is evident not only in the field of teacher training, but also in other areas of tertiary and vocational education. The unmet demand for places in university courses is estimated to be in the order of 100,000 qualified applicants per year. A similar situation exists in the fields of technical and vocational education. Problems also exist at the other end of the educational scale. Literacy in the 110 million population is estimated to be 24 percent, with a dropout rate of 70 percent at primary school level. Estimates of human resource requirements projected in recent development plans include significant shortages in such fields as agriculture, industries, public utilities, construction, and public services amounting to almost 20 million person-years.
Bhutan
The concept of distance education on a large scale is relatively new in Bhutan. Apart from a number of non-formal correspondence courses and radio programs on health education, family planning and animal husbandry, Dukpa (1987) reported that distance education activities in the formal education sphere resulted from the initiative of an appreciable number of teachers and civil servants, who undertook correspondence courses offered by colleges and universities in India at their own expense. Despite the lack of comprehensive distance education operations in Bhutan, the concept is growing in acceptance and support. Recognition of the potential of distance education is reflected in the fact that, for the first time in Bhutan, a Distance Education Workshop was organized at the National institute of Education (NIE) in July 1989. As a result of this initiative, the NIE (through its Department of In-service Education) plans to implement a distance education program for teachers. Other potential target populations f
or distance education programs include early school dropouts and non-school entrants (functional literacy and numeracy), extension workers (agriculture, veterinary science, health, etc.) and farmers. In addition, there is a strong commitment to the teaching of the national language, Dzongkha. It is apparent that Bhutan, with a population of approximately 1.4 million people widely dispersed throughout mountainous country, could benefit from access to a professional distance education infrastructure.
India
Faced with a huge unmet demand for education, India turned to distance education with the creation of the Correspondence Institute of the University of Delhi in 1962. Daniel (1988) highlighted the fact that 20 percent of India's 133 universities now have correspondence institutes, but with programs limited mainly to arts and commerce. More significant was the establishment of a number of open universities, beginning in 1982 with Andhra Pradesh Open University, which had 40,000 full-time and part-time students enroled after only four years. Since then, other open universities have been created in the states of Rajasthan (Kota) and Bihar (Nolanda), while the possibility of setting up others has been discussed in a number or regions including Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, and West Bengal. Such state-based initiatives complemented by the establishment, in 1985, of the Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU) which, according to Singh (1989), has been empowered to supervise the functioning of
all the distance education institutes throughout the entire country by undertaking a role similar to that of the University Grants Commission.
IGNOU's brief is indeed monumental when one considers that the Indian sub-continent covers an area of almost 1.3 million square miles, through which is distributed a population of approximately 800 million people. The scope of IGNOU's task is further complicated by these facts: almost 40 percent of the population is under 15 years of age; 75 percent of the population lives in rural areas; the overall literacy rate was estimated in 1984 to be about 40 percent, and there are 14 recognized official languages apart from Hindi and English.
The human resources development needs are reflected in the proposed expansion of distance education to accommodate enrolments projected at a minimum of 20,000 new students on an annual basis and a potential ultimate enrolment of approximately 700,000 students each year (Miller, 1998). The potential scope for the expansion of distance education activities at school level has also been documented. Mullick (1987) reported that correspondence education at the secondary school level needed to be significantly enlarged, since it constituted only 0.31 percent of the enrolment in formal schools. Mullick highlighted further development needs which could be at least partly ameliorated through distance education initiatives, including the lack of compatibility between various parts of the education sector and the job market and the associated lack of appropriately trained people in such areas as teacher education, rural development, and health care.
Maldives
There is no formally established system of distance education in the Maldives, although some activities have been incorporated into both formal and non-formal education (Selim, 1987). For example, a series of radio programs on the teaching of English for Grades I and II is broadcast on a regular basis. With UNDP support, however, a pilot project under the auspices of the Non-Formal Education Unit (NFEU) of the Ministry of Education is currently in progress. Initiated in 1988, enrolment of 90 participants from three atolls commenced later that year and the program, a post-beginners' level English course, began in May 1989. Course completion is scheduled for March 1990.
The present commitment of the Maldives Government to distance education is reflected in the fact that a five-year plan to establish a distance education centre has been developed. Financial support for the first two years of this initiative has been guaranteed by UNDP. The NFEU is to become the Department of Non-Formal Education, wherein a Distance Education Centre will be established. A comprehensive infrastructure for distance education to service all atolls should fully operational by 1995. As well as the present program, the following have been identified as necessary to meet human resource development requirements: education programs in teaching (especially middle and secondary levels), health, technical and vocational, population and early childhood education. Given the fact that the population of approximately 200,000 people is scattered through 200 islands, there is clearly considerable scope for the expansion of distance education activities.
Nepal
Similarly, Nepal is a relatively small country apparently well suited to distance education with its population dispersed through a mountainous country, one-third of which is officially declared as remote area districts. The Government of Nepal recognized the potential of teacher training by radio and, with the assistance of USAID, in 1972 began planning an initiative to meet increased school enrolments (Selim, 1987). The subsequent launch of the Radio Education Teacher Training Program (RETTP) in 1978 entailed supplying more than 25,000 radios to untrained, rural primary school teachers. To date, 5,371 participants have taken the trial examination, and 65 percent of them have graduated.
The Nepalese Government is currently implementing a number of developmental projects in education and training. Their potential success, however, is constrained by a shortage of qualified staff. Distance education initiatives could make a significant contribution to these projects, which include achieving universal primary education by the year 2000 (which requires the training of an additional 34,000 teachers), implementing of functional literacy programs, enhancing technical and vocational education, and improving the participation rate of women. The government has recognized the value of distance education and has recently appointed a task force of senior educationists to prepare a comprehensive plan for the development of a distance education system in Nepal.
Pakistan
In a country of more than 100 million people, the Allama Iqbal Open University (AIOU) was established in 1974 to provide "education for all." The functions of AIOU were reiterated in the Fifth Five-Year Plan (1978-83), which included reference to the employment of multi-media distance learning techniques to offer in-service training courses for primary and middle school teachers, general foundation courses, and functional education courses, thus highlighting the university's role in non-formal as well as formal education. The emphasis on non-formal education is reflected in a number of AIOU projects, such as the Integrated Functional Education Project, the Civic Education Project, and the Women's Education Project. Annual enrolments increased from only 1,000 students in 1976 to almost 120,000 in 1986; cumulative enrolments are in the vicinity of 850,000. (Siddiqui, 1987)
Despite the relatively rapid success of the AIOU in developing and offering a wide range of multimedia courses over an extensive spectrum of educational levels, Siddiqui (1987) outlined a number of major problems in the education and training sector in Pakistan, including low levels of literacy (estimated at 30 percent), low levels of participation in schooling (especially among females), lack of emphasis on technical and vocational education, and the need to strengthen professional education. He nominated the following human-resource development areas for priority treatment: literacy, in-service teacher training (especially in industrial arts, agriculture, and commerce at the secondary level); technical and vocational education, and the provision of professional education in the following sectors: agriculture, law, health (including the training of paramedics,) and the training of distance education personnel.
Sri Lanka
Because of Sri Lanka's universal free education policy, introduced in 1945, there has been little need to use distance education techniques among the school-age population, except for the deployment of television to teach certain specialized subjects at the secondary level. The unmet demand for tertiary education, however, led to the establishment of the Sri Lanka Institute of Distance Education (SLIDE) in 1976. This institution was absorbed into the Open University of Sri Lanka (OUSL), which was created in 1980 to augment the work of eight conventional universities. The total enrolment has grown from 9,000 in 1980 to almost 13,000 in 1989. In addition to OUSL, the National Institute of Education is currently offering in-service teacher education to more than 10,000 teachers by distance education.
Despite the apparent success of distance education in Sri Lanka, Kotelawele and Samarasundara (1987) believe that the potential of this mode of instruction to resolve pressing large-scale education and training problems is not fully realized. They argue that inadequate funding and the lack of training in distance education techniques, especially educational technology, have somewhat limited the contribution of distance education to national development. At the same time, they outline the potential for expanding the scope and range of courses available to service training needs in teacher education, technical education and professional updating in a variety of fields.
Towards International Co-operation in South Asia
Apart from establishing that distance education operations in South Asia are currently servicing the needs of more than 500,000 students in a wide variety of courses at levels ranging from literacy programs to higher degrees, this review also indicates a significant degree of overlap in course offerings and, more importantly, an apparent overlap in human resources development requirements. For example, Table 1 demonstrates that common needs exist in several countries in such areas as teacher training, various aspects of technical and vocational education, health education, agriculture and rural development. Further, it seems reasonable to suggest that the development of distance education courses to meet apparently common development needs could occur on a co-operative basis to serve the South Asian region as a whole. For instance, the joint development of courses in mathematics, health, nutrition, nursing, engineering, science, education, agriculture, and rural development in both non-formal courses, scho
ol-level courses, and courses leading to formally recognized degrees (B.A., B.Sc., B.Ed.) could well have a sufficient degree of commonality of course content to warrant their use in a variety of national contexts.
While not denying the existence or importance of national diversity, there exists an opportunity for reviewing existing courseware to ascertain the extent to which it could be used, or adapted, to meet the development of certain courses. For example, distance education courseware in science, engineering, and technology in Sri Lanka could well be of great value to countries in the region that have so far concentrated their efforts in the humanities, social sciences, and education. Similarly, joint development of new courseware to service common requirements through the establishment of international course teams could well be worth pursuing, so that ultimately the countries of the South Asian region could benefit from the economies of scale inherent in large distance education operations.
If it were possible to create an appropriate mechanism for facilitating collaborative ventures in sharing expertise and resources in distance education to optimize potential economies of scale, the cost benefits accrued from educational expenditure could be significantly enhanced—not only the lowering of per student costs, but also in terms of effectiveness through the enhancement of instructional quality. Such a proposal is certainly ambitious, but powerful initiatives are needed to combat the problems of providing access to education for the rapidly increasing populations of South Asia, especially in times of variable economic stability.
In competition with education for limited national resources are needs for economic investment, national health programs, transportation and communication systems, and the numerous other activities necessary for national development. Such competing needs intensify the pressure to limit expenditure on education and to seek means of providing education more efficiently. The investment by various governments in the South Asian region in distance education operations suggests that the potential contribution of those systems to cost-effective educational provision is widely acknowledged. Certain economies of scale at the national level have already been exploited in countries such as India and Pakistan, but the even greater economies of scale potentially emanating from co-operative distance education on an international basis are still to be recognized. This is especially the case for smaller countries in the region, such as Bhutan, Maldives, and Nepal, which have yet to make significant financial investments i
n distance education. The development of effective regional co-operation in distance education may be the only viable way of bringing the masses of South Asia into the twentieth century before we reach the twenty-first century.
Postscript
A detailed analysis of the possible form and operational feasibility of a mechanism for regional co-operation (Taylor, 1989) was debated fully at the recent Asian Development Bank-sponsored Round Table Conference on "Distance Education for South Asian Countries" held at Allama Iqbal Open University. Official delegations from all countries of the region were in attendance. A major recommendation of the conference was to further examine a range of alternative mechanisms for achieving regional cooperation by undertaking a series of co-ordinated feasibility studies. It is likely that such activities will commence in 1990 with the support of the Asian Development Bank.
Table 1. Overview of distance education operations in South Asia
|
| Country |
Existing Distance Education Operations |
Courses |
Estimated Annual Enrolment |
Manpower Development Requirements |
|
| Bangladesh |
BIDE |
B. Ed. |
6,000+ |
Teacher training, agriculture, public utilities, construction, public services, literacy |
| Bhutan |
Minimal |
Non-formal |
Unknown, but limited |
Teacher training, agriculture, veterinary science, health, teaching of the national league (Dzongkha), literacy |
| India |
IGNOU, Open Universities, Correspondence Institutes, Secondary Education |
BA., DDE. CRWE, CFPN. ADM, M, B. comm M. Comm., M.A. |
400.00 |
Teacher training, technical and vocational training, primary and secondary education, rural development, health, child care |
| Maldives |
Minimal |
Non-formal education. Upgrade of teacher training. School broadcasts |
Unknown but limited |
Teacher training, technical and vocational education, health, early childhood, education, population education |
| Nepal |
Minimal |
Teacher training |
1,000+ |
Teacher training, technical and vocational education, literacy |
| Pakistan |
AIOU |
M.A., M. Sc., M.B.A., B.A., B. Comm., B. Ed., etc., non-formal |
120,000+ |
Teacher training, technical and vocational education, agriculture, law, health and literacy |
| Sri-Lanka |
OUSI, Institute of Distance Education |
LL.B., B.Sc., B. Tech., Grad. Dip. Ed. |
23,000+ |
Teacher training. technical and vocational education, professional updating |
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