How to Write Flexible Learning Materials

Context:
In this selection on writing from this guide for preparing learning materials, the author gives guidelines and some examples of ways to structure a unit as well as tips on writing style.

Source:
Lewis, Roger. How to Write Flexible Learning Materials. National Council for Educational Technology: Coventry, pp. 23-34.

Copyright:
Reproduced with permission.

This section helps you:

• structure your unit
  
  
• link together the parts of your unit you have already produced (i.e. objectives, questions, activities and feedback)
  
  
• write new sections (for example introductions and endings)
  
  
• develop a straightforward writing style
  
  
• monitor and improve your style
  
  
• get started!
  

Your unit should be the written equivalent of the easy, informal approach taken by a good teacher/trainer. The structure of your unit, and your written style, should reassure learners that their needs have been anticipated and met. The words you use are only a part of this process: design, layout and illustration arc covered in later sections.

This book recommends an approach to the writing task: objective first, then assessment tests with feedback, and only then the main text. This sequence has been found to work well by many writers of flexible learning materials. You could, or course, choose some other sequence, for example, writing the assessment tests first. What is important is the quality of the end product.

Structuring your unit

If you have followed the advice given in earlier sections of this book you will by now have produced objectives, tests of the objectives (questions, activities and assignments) and feedback on the tests, You now need to put these building blocks into the required order. This will help you see the unit's structure, and plan your linking sections. It will also guarantee a unit that is structured in a way that makes sense to learners.

Figure 4 gives an example of one structure. This is deliberately ambitious to show how many and varied are the means you can use to gain the degree of interaction necessary in a flexible learning unit. You probably won't need as many different elements in your own text. The unit elements are set out on the left-hand side and the purpose of each is given in the right-hand column.

Plan the structure of your own unit. Get feedback on it.

Introductions, endings and links

You will see from Figure 4 that some new material has to be written. In particular you need a way of opening your unit, a way of closing it and away of linking the various parts together. Some ideas for each of these are given below.

Introductions
Title,
Contents list (or content map)
Unit number (if in a sequence)
List of what the learner should have done previously
List of what the learner needs to have to hand (e.g. any equipment)
Indication of likely time the unit will take

Endings
Summary of main points
Checklist
Ideas for revision
A look forward to a future unit
Optional extra work

Signposts
Route learners through the unit by headings. These should relate to the objectives and emphasise the structure of the unit. Alert learners to what is to come, e.g. 'I shall set out three approaches. . .'
Indicate the beginning and ending, e.g. 'To begin with . . .'
'To finish, answer this question'.
Emphasise important points, e.g. 'The key point is . . .'
Show relationships within the subject matter, for example, 'However . . . ', 'Because . . .', 'So. . .'

Tips on writing style

There are a number of generally agreed principles of good writing. Some of these are summarised below.

Keep it simple
If you have to use a technical word, make sure it's necessary and help the learner use it.

Keep it short
The shorter the word usually the better; avoid words containing many syllables. See Figure 5 for examples.

The shorter the sentence usually the better; aim for 20 words maximum. See Figure 6 for wordy examples and their shorter equivalents.

The shorter the paragraph usually the better; aim for 65 - 91 words, 5 - 7 lines.

The shorter the section within a unit usually the better.

Remember also that you do need some variety in your style.

Use examples
Use examples - concrete details bring points to life.

Write directly
Use the positive rather than the negative. For example, 'It is common' rather than 'It is not uncommon'.

Use the active rather than the passive. For example, 'You considered immigration' rather than 'Immigration was considered'.

Use the personal rather than the impersonal: 'I mentioned. . .' rather than 'It was mentioned. . .'

Use clear signposting. This helps learners see where they are and to feel comfortable. (See the checklist on signposting given earlier.)

Use visuals
Use illustrations wherever possible; see the next section. The example below shows the impact of a simple illustration.

Ask your colleague/friend to check your style, using the advice given in this section.

You might also like to check the style of textbooks and other printed resources used by your learners.

How to improve your style

There are two major points here. First, use to the full the circular process suggested in this book. Second, use readability tests.

The drafting process

This book has stressed the value of drafting and redrafting your work. The process is summarised below.

This requires you to submit your work to the scrutiny of other people. You have to welcome criticism because that's the way to improve. You need to go round and round the cycle until you're happy with your work. For more on this, see section 9 on piloting.

Readability tests

Two tests will give you an idea of how readable your prose is: the Cloze Test and the Fog Index. You should also read your work aloud.

The Cloze Test Take a passage of your own text, about 250 words long. Leave a 35-word run-in and then delete the 36th word and every tenth word thereafter (46th, 56th, 66th, 76th, etc.). Stop deleting words when you have deleted 20. An easy way to blank out the words is simply to stick a disguise of Blutack on top. It's better if the reader doesn't know the length of the missing word. But this would mean specially preparing the passage and is probably not worth the trouble in this case.

Now select one (or several) of the people in your target group of learners and try it out. Cloze is particularly useful as part of piloting. If they fail to provide the correct words or a totally acceptable alternative in at least 13 cases out of 20, then the text is too difficult.

If this is the result, then modify the passage by simplifying the language, shortening the sentences and avoiding the use of long or difficult words.

The Modified Fog Index Take a sample passage of about 100 words (several samples would give a better guide but will take more time).

Count all the long words (three syllables or more) in the sample. Then work out the average sentence length of the complete sentences within the sample. You do this by dividing the total number of words by the number of complete sentences.

Then apply the following formula:

Reading age (ra) =	(Average sentence length + long words) x 2	+5
	5

Thus, if the average sentence length was 20 words and there were four long words, then:

ra =	(20x4) x 2 [SIC]	+5      ra =	48	+5      ra = 9.6 + 5
	5		5

Reading age = 14.6. That is, the passage is suitable for the average reader of 14.6 years.

Generally you should be aiming at around 12. Robert Gunning, who developed the Fog Index (in The Technique of Effective Writing, 1952) applied the test to a number of successful authors. He found that they all came out with a score of 11 or below.

A score above 20 indicates that the text is for the highly literate, and may well be hard for anyone.

A simpler measure is just to work out the average number of long words (three syllables or more) in each sentence. If the score is more than three then the writing is likely to be too difficult.

Reading aloud Read your material out aloud or get your colleague to do this while you listen. This will highlight awkward passages that need rewriting.

Apply these tests to your own writing. Apply them, too, to textbooks and other printed materials used by your learners.

How to get started

Get organised
Plan meticulously: the structure of your unit; the detail of your working environment; how you will spend your time.

• Find a block of time you can commit to writing.
  
  
• Find a quiet place.
  
  
• Have all your materials to hand.
  

• Write the unit in bits; then you have only to stitch the bits together.
• Write first the bits you find easiest.
• If writing on paper, give yourself plenty of space for modification.

• Set manageable deadlines
  
  
• Produce the first draft quickly
  
  
• Allow enough time. The time you need will depend upon circumstances but assume it will take you around 10 hours to write a decent draft of material that will occupy one hour of learners' time. (In the section on Scheduling I quote up to a further 10 hours for additional work undertaken later in the production cycle.)
  
  
• Write the first draft quickly, leaving time for changes later.
  
  
• Circulate the first draft early to get comments on it; allow yourself time to use these comments.
  

• to draft with you.
  
  
• as a spur-by promising them materials on a set date.
  
  
• as a sounding-board.
  
  
• to get comments.
  

Have you planned the unit's structure?

Have you prepared the beginning?

Have you prepared the ending?

• signposted the learner?
• used shorter rather than longer: words, sentences, paragraphs and sections?
• used the Cloze Test and/or the Fog Index and read your work aloud?
• helped the learner use any necessary technical terms?
• used examples?
• used the positive, the personal and the active?
• used illustrations?

Have you used your colleague(s)/learners to the full?

Have you amended your style in the light of their comments?