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Most textbooks and manuals do not incorporate active learning. They only use one-way instruction. The learner reads what has been written but in no way responds to the material. An effective instruction design in distance education however, usually consists of a two-way process. That is to say, there is interaction between the writer's text and the learner. The learner is therefore actively involved in the learning process.
It is for this reason that the writer of distance education materials has a very different task from the writer of an ordinary textbook. Let us examine how a textbook and a distance education units differ.
| Textbook |
Distance Education Unit |
| one-way communication |
two-way communication |
| learner is passive |
learner is actively involved |
| structure is hidden |
learner is aware of structure |
| self-directed learning |
learner is guided |
| lecture |
dialogue |
| impersonal |
friendly and encouraging |
| little application of knowledge and skills |
learner applies new knowledge and skills |
| no activities, only at end of chapters |
activities and exercises throughout text |
| content in chapters or large blocks |
content is divided into small chunks |
| no assignment |
assignment for marking |
| no feedback |
feedback provided on learner's progress |
The Purpose of Active Learning
There are a number of reasons why active learning is essential in distance education.
First, the learner cannot be forced to learn since he is on his own. The writer therefore needs to make every effort to make learning more likely. The learner should be encouraged and motivated. Consequently, the writer has the task of making the text interesting and lively.
Next, it is important to realize that learning at a distance is best done a little at a time. The writer must take this into consideration when developing his materials. Questions, activities and exercises liberally placed in the text ensures that learning proceeds in small steps.
Lastly, the writer of distance education materials will never know whether or not the learner has actually mastered the material unless it is applied. Exercises, self tests and assignments are an essential component to ensure this.
The purpose of active learning therefore is to:
- help the learner learn, often by making him use the information encountered;
- enable the writer and learner to build up a dialogue;
- encourage the learner through successful completion of his work;
- check the learner's progress,
- break the text into learning chunks;
- provide feedback on the course.
Building Interactive Learning into the Course
It has already been pointed out that in distance education, the learner must be actively involved in the learning process. In order to do this the writer must write in such a way that he is continually talking to the learner in a friendly and encouraging dialogue. This dialogue should include advice on what to do and how to do it, encouragement to the learner so that he doesn't give up studying, reinforcement and praise. Here are some examples of this type of writing.
- I hope you enjoyed reading this passage. It is always interesting to learn about new places, isn't it?
- I hope you did well on this self test. If you did you should go on to the next section.
- You should spend 15-20 minutes doing this exercise.
- Well done! You have completed half of the unit. Take a well-earned rest. Have a cup of tea if you want. Then you should be refreshed and ready to start learning again.
In order to have a well-written unit, the learner must be able to perceive what the writer's intentions are. The best way for the writer to convey his intentions is to include clear, well-stated objectives at the beginning of each unit. A detailed table of contents also helps the learner to know what to expect. This enables the learner to prepare himself for what is ahead. Throughout the text, the writer should have "advanced organizers." Advanced organizers are explicit statements of the writer's intentions as are symbols which indicate to the learner what is coming next. Bridges or links are also important in this regard. They carry the learner from one topic to the next and help him to relate what he is studying to what he has learned previously, and what he will learn next. Finally, the writer should revise what he has been teaching. This should be done after every main section of the text. Let us clarify each of these techniques.
- Objectives
Having studied this unit you should be able to:
- define "bookkeeping;"
- explain why we keep books of account;
- describe and give examples of personal accounts, real accounts, nominal accounts. ("Accounts Clerk National Certificate Course" CADE/SDS)
- Advanced organizers and symbols
- In this section, we will talk about writing in general and then point out how writing for distance education makes additional demands on the writer.
- In this unit we shall consider how to present activities so learners can interact with the text and learn the material better. You should be able to complete this unit in three hours and the assignment in two hours.
- Symbol Now read pages 15-18 and find out why plants flower at different times of the year.
- To help you in this section you will need an atlas and a ruler.
- Bridges or links
- In the last unit we discovered that the language in distance education materials is often too difficult. Complicated language makes a unit difficult to understand. In this unit therefore we shall consider a number of aspects of language and style.
- In the previous section we learned about nouns and verbs. Let's now learn about words that describe nouns and verbs. These are called adjectives and adverbs.
- Recapitulation
- What have we learned'?
We have learned that a curriculum offers sociallyvalued knowledge, skills and attitudes through a variety of arrangements during the time pupils are at school, college, university or any other place of learning.
- This unit has identified a number of features that should be present in every unit.
At the beginning there should be:
- a statement of aims';
- an introduction to the subject matter;
- study data;
- a description of the learning outcomes;
- orientation to the subject.
In the body of the unit there should be:
- a clear division into sections;
- a sequence of new material and exercises.
At the end there should be:
- a check on what the student should have done;
- a check on what the unit was about;
- a check on whether the material has been learnt.
Distance learners can also be helped in other ways to read the unit and select from important points, classify them, develop arguments, formulate concepts and draw conclusions. The writer must therefore build into the text of the unit ways to help the learner do this. One of the things the writer can do is to have a clear heading scheme. This helps the learner to identify main topics and subtopics. In this way the learner is assisted to pick out the salient ideas and concepts of the unit. Another device the writer can use is to underline or write in bold, difficult terminologies or points he wishes to emphasize. The use of boxes also highlights parts of the text that require the learner's special attention. Lastly, the writer can itemize his thoughts by using bullets. These draw the learner's attention to the points being made.
In all these ways the writer has engaged the learner in a dialogue and active learning just the same way a teacher in a classroom would do.
Here are further examples of these methods.
- Underlining or printing in bold
Soil is formed by weathering of rocks. Chemical weathering results in clay. Mechanical weathering results in sand.
An important part of soil is humus.
- Using boxes, frames or take note symbols
| You can protect your children against the six childhood killer diseases by immunization. |
| F |
Always wash your hands after using the toilet. |
- Bullets
The following are the most commonly used methods of family planning.
- barrier methods
- medical methods
- surgical methods
- natural methods
The Different Forms of Active Learning
Active learning can take three forms:
- thinking,
- writing,
- doing.
Let us discuss each of these in turn.
A learner may be stimulated to think by being asked questions, make mental notes, summarize, by being requested to interpret facts, make connections between facts, transfer knowledge, relate knowledge and information to daily life, solve problems, and make inferences.
Here are some examples of these type of thinking activities.
- Why is it important for an adult educator to be a key person in the evaluation of literacy programs?
- Name at least five areas which you, as an adult educator, should be trying to evaluate continuously.
("Effective Evaluation," Foundations Course in Adult Education)
Involving the learners in writing activities is perhaps the most frequently used method in distance education. Even here though it is important to remember that there must be a variety of written work and that it must always have an instructional purpose. By being asked to do a written activity, the learner does not have a chance to be passive and dull; instead writing helps to consolidate learning and fix it in the learner's mind. It also tests his comprehension. Even mere copying is an aide to memory. Answering questions in writing gives the learner an opportunity to work things out properly. Not only can he apply things to his own situation but to new situations as well.
Look at these two examples of written activities.
- Label the parts of the stamen.
- What is the name of the male part of the flower? _________________________________ (LD TC course "Agricultural Science")
- When we say that cooperation is rooted in the spirit of Harambee, what do we mean'?
The third type of active learning is learning by doing. This means that the writer must try to improve the learner's skills in a practical way.
In any distance education course, he may ask the learner to do any or all of the following:
- experiments;
- making arts and crafts objects and real things;
- reading, interpreting and drawing maps;
- interpreting and constructing tables, charts, and graphs;
- carrying out a project;
- writing a report on an activity;
- undertaking an educational visit;
- solve problems;
- apply their skills in a real-life situation, such as cooking or farming,
Here are two examples of this type of activity.
- Go to your local market and make a list of all the fruits and vegetables being sold there.
- This shows how you can combine a step-by-step account of a practical task with illustrations to aid comprehension. (From LDTC booklet "How to Crochet.")
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6. Keeping the wool caught in the hook, pull the hook backwards through the loop.
When you have got it through, push the hook forwards again over the loop.
You will find you have a new loop on your hook.
You have made your first stitch.
(If you find it difficult to get the hook through the loop, your loop is probably too small. Try again with a larger loop.)
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The Different Types of Activities
Apart from the different forms of activities that a writer of distance education materials can use, there are various other instructional devices available to him. Once the writer is familiar with them, he can incorporate as many of these as necessary into his unit.
There are two types of activities. One type of activity is done and marked by the learner himself using answers included in the unit. In this way the learner checks and assesses his own progress. These types of activities are generally called self-assessment questions. Since the learner marks these questions himself there should be only one correct clear answer to each question. The writer should therefore use objective-type questions when constructing such exercises.
The other type of activity is done by the learner but marked by his tutor. This is usually known as a written assignment. Once the learner has completed the unit, he does the assignment and posts it to the tutor for marking.
Let us now look at some examples of self-assessment activities.
- In-text questions
This type of question does not necessarily require a formal written answer. Its purpose is to direct the learner's thoughts about the text as he reads it. The learner is made to stop and think for a moment.
In-text questions
- help keep the learner alert;
- direct attention to what follows;
- encourage the learner to pause and think before reading on;
- help the learner to apply knowledge to his own situation.
Here are two in-text questions from a course on rural surgery.
- Who provides surgical care in your community?
- Name three items a TBA carries in her kit.
- Quick checks
This type of question is needed when important new ideas or difficult words are introduced. In order to understand these terms the learner should be given a chance to use them. Quick checks can also be used to review work or to act as a stimulus.
Quick checks
- help review;
- apply knowledge;
- break up learning.
Here are two examples from a course on Professional Studies.
Put a tick (ü) against all the things that traditional education taught children to do.
- Survive in their environment __________________________
- Read and write __________________________
- Defend their families __________________________
- Endure hardships __________________________
- Draw maps and diagrams __________________________
- Be respectful __________________________
Write T for true or F for false after these statements.
Education within the traditional African society included:
- Education for age groups __________________________
- Education for new literates __________________________
- Education for specialization __________________________
- How to vote __________________________
- General education __________________________
- Review or "Stop and Check"
The purpose of this type of question is to break up the unit into small portions of work, to let the learner think about what he has just studied to assign portions of written work, or tasks for group discussion.
Here is an example of a "Stop and Check" question.
Now go back and read pages 8-10 on "Why Mother's Milk is Best." Then list the three reasons why a mother should breastfeed her baby.
- Summaries
Summaries at the end of sections help the learner to see if he has understood the content and to highlight the main points.
Here is an example of a summary from a course on Basic Cooperative Knowledge.
We can summarize what we have learned about planning for cooperatives as follows:
- it helps the cooperative to achieve their objectives;
- it assists the various activities of the cooperatives to complement each other;
- it helps the employees of cooperatives to work in harmony;
- it helps the members to judge to what extent they are achieving their objectives.
- Situational questions
These type of questions give a real situation where the learner applies what he has learned. It also provides an opportunity to use the skills learned in real life.
This example is from a course on Basic Cooperative Bookkeeping.
You are the secretary of your cooperative society, Ujenzi Ltd. Mr. S. Juma has just paid Shs. 250 in cash for 3 bags of cement. His membership number is 420. Fill in the receipt below according to this information.
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OFFICIAL RECEIPT Date ________________ 19______
Received with thanks from ________________
Shillings ________________Cents ________________
On account of ________________________________
Shs. ________________________________
________________________
Ujenzi Co-op. Society Ltd.
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Here is one more example from a course on Rural Medicine.
There were many cases of pneumonia diagnosed at your clinic last year. Look at the records on p. 10 and plot all the cases of pneumonia in 1984.
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| No. of cases
_______________________
J F M A M J J A S 0 N D
From the graph you plotted, was pneumonia endemic or epidemic in your area? Give reasons for your answer.
- Crosswords or number puzzles
These are fun to do and the solutions can easily be checked by the learner.
Puzzles:
- increase and improve vocabulary
- are thought-provoking
- add variety and fun
- improve numeracy skills.
Here are two examples. The first is from a course on Basic Cooperative Knowledge. The other puzzle is from a primary school language course.
Across: A movement of people working together.
Down: Basic laws of society.
Crossword puzzles can be fun to do.
Do this one, which is all about Kenya.
| Across | Down |
| 1. The staple food of most Kenyans | 1. A lake from which soda ash is obtained |
| 2. An important national holiday | 2. A wild striped animal found in game parks |
| 3. The name of the capital city of Kenya | 3. A major river in Kenya (2 words) |
| 4. Mombasa is situated on this body of water (2 words) | 4. Kenya's biggest port |
| 5. A boat used at the coast | 5. The biggest lake in Kenya |
- Completion Tables
These types of questions require the learner to fill in missing information on a table.
Completion tables:
- help students to recall specific information;
- check understanding of the text;
- help students to compare and contrast.
Here is an example from a T.V.C. Postal course.
Fill in the missing entries in the following table. Some have been filled in to help you.
The blank spaces can be filled in by thinking of the differences which result from the use of more machines per worker.
| CATEGORY |
CAPITAL INTENSIVE |
LABOUR INTENSIVE |
| 1. Level of productivity | | |
| 2. Employment structure | Small, skilled labour force | |
| 3. Wages structure | High wages | |
| 4. Union policy issues | | Basic rates, overtime |
| 5. Union structure | Union for skilled workers | |
This second example comes from a post-literacy course on immunization.
In the blank spaces of this plan, write the age of the child, names of the vaccinations and the diseases the child is protected against.
| Age of Child |
Vaccination Given |
Disease Child is Protected Against |
| At birth |
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Tuberculosis
Polio |
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DPT first dose
Polio second dose |
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| 10 weeks |
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DPT third dose
Polio fourth dose |
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- Multiple choice
In this type of question the learner must choose the correct answer from amongst four options.
Here is an example from an English course for adults.
- "Irrigation" means
- drying crops
- digging canals
- spreading mud
- watering crops
- A "Shaduf" is
- a tool for growing cotton.
- an instrument for digging dry ground.
- a machine for pouring water onto the fields.
- an object for controlling the water in the Nile.
- "Ancient" means
- civilized.
- old.
- developed.
- clever.
- An "export crop" is one that is
- sold to other countries.
- bought in shops.
- bought from other countries.
- marketed in the country.
- Matching
Here are two examples of matching questions. The first is from an "O" level English course and the second is from an English course for adults.
Match the words in Column A with the definitions in Column B that most nearly express the meaning. Place in the parentheses the letter that identifies the correct answer.
| Column A | Column B |
| ( ) 1. anxious | (a) charming |
| ( ) 2. attractive | (b) considerate |
| ( ) 3. careless | (c) faulty |
| ( ) 4. complex | (d) intricate |
| ( ) 5. different | (e)irregular |
| ( ) 6. imperfect | (f)negligent |
| ( ) 7. intolerable | (g)stable |
| ( ) 8. occasional | (h)unbearable |
| ( ) 9. practical | (i)unlike |
| ( ) 10. thoughtful | (j)worrying |
Match the two parts of these sentences correctly by drawing a line between them.
| 1. You've caused | her getting a prize. |
| 2. Her good behaviour led to | a good harvest. |
| 3. The rains will lead to | people to laugh. |
| 4. Mrs. Halima often causes | trouble with your neighbours. |
| 5. A lack of unity leads to | war. |
- Fill in the blank
Look at this example from an English course for adults.
Here is a list of words. Use them to fill in the blank spaces in the paragraph. You will need to change the form of the word.
begun
join
descent
driest
rose
brought
approaches
wide
swamp
usual
Rivers (1) as small, streams. Most of them (2) in areas where there is heavy rain. They are then (3) by other streams. In this way they grow (4). As the rivers (5) to the sea they often pass through (6) and (7) land. As the (8) the sea they ran out into a delta. Rivers (9) benefits to the people living along their banks.
- Putting items in order
Here are two examples of this type of question.
Here are some things young children learn to do at different stages. Put them in the order in which children usually learn to do them.
sit without support
kick
run
walk
These sentences are not in the correct order. Arrange then so that they describe what really happens in the water cycle. Write the numbers in the correct order.
- The small drops of water then join together.
- After this the cycle repeats itself again and again.
- The rain falls in seas, lakes and rivers.
- The sun's heat and the wind make water evaporate.
- As the vapour rises it gets cooler and cooler.
- The drops of water become clouds.
- The clouds rise and the drops of water become even cooler.
- The water vapour rises.
- The vapour condenses and forms drops of water.
- The drops of water become heavier and heavier and fall as rain.
- Short-answer structured questions
This type of question requires the learner to give a two or three word answer. He may choose the answer from the text of the unit or from a given list.
Here is an example from an English course for adults.
Answer these questions.
- What is the name of the male part of the flower? __________________________
- What colour is the anther and what does it hold? __________________________
- Which part of the stamen supports the anther? __________________________
stamen
yellow, pollen sacs
filament
- Labelling
In this type of question the learner is given a diagram or map and asked to label the different parts.
This example comes from a course on Rural Medicine.
Draw an arrow to show where each of the following diseases occurs in the respiratory system.
| Upper Respiratory System | Lower Respiratory System |
| coryza | bronchitis |
| pharyngitis | bronchislitis |
| tonsillitis | bronchopneumonia |
| larggotracheitis | lobar pneumonia |
The second example is from a science course for adults.
Label the parts of the lift pump using these words:
piston
piston valve
handle
air pushing on water
inlet valve
underground water
spout
long pipe into ground
- Listing
Here is an example of a listing question from a course on Rural Medicine.
- List the possible reasons for the failure of a measles vaccination.
The second example is from an art course.
- List the elements of art.
- Substitution table
- This is a useful activity in a language unit. Here is one example from an English unit.
Ali and his friend were very [excited | glad | happy] about going to the Nairobi Show. They planned to see as many of the [exhibits | displays | stands] as possible. They knew their teacher would [require | ask | tell] them to write a report so they remembered to {carry | bring | take] their exercise books and pens. When they arrived at the show. it was very [noisy. | crowded. | congested.] They [went | headed | proceeded] straight to where the livestock was kept. It was [unfortunate, | disappointing, | upsetting,] though, to see that there were very few animals there.
- Later on, Ali and his friend talked about what they had seen so far. Write out their opinions by choosing one expression from each box to complete the sentences.
Ali thinks the show is [too crowded | very expensive | very exciting | too busy] but his friend [does not agree with him. | doesn't think so. | thinks it certainly is not so. | disagrees with him.] Ali says that the exhibits are [interesting. | worth noting. | very attractive. | new and informative. However, his friend [disagrees with him | doesn't think he's right | thinks he's wrong | does not agree with him] because he thinks they are [boring. | uninteresting. | the same as last year's. | monotonous.]
Activities which engage the learner in interaction with the study material have been illustrated by the types of examples just given. By interacting with the text the learner will complete statements, answer questions, write notes of his own, and review the material he has just read. Through these responses he should demonstrate whether or not he has acquired the learning that is supposed to be taking place.
Lastly, the learner needs feedback. He must be able to assess directly if his reponses, have been correct. This is especially important if the response has been wrong. In this case. the learner should be guided to the correct answers or to seeking additional information.
All learner activities should therefore have answers. These must be teaching answers that help the learner see where he has gone wrong. Sometimes an answer may only need to refer back to the section where the point was explained. Sometimes, however, the explanation needs to be lengthy and give the student further help in tackling this type of question. Whenever possible, model answers should be given, preferably at the end of the unit.
The writer can help motivate the learners by including places where they can record their score.
Example:
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MY MARK
18-20 = Very good
15-17 = good
12-14 =Average
Below 12 = Needs improvement
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Now let us consider written assignments.
As already mentioned, assignments differ from self-assessment in that they are marked by the tutor. The tutor's time is usually the most expensive element of the correspondence course so the writer must make sure that it is used well. It is a good idea to keep the questions that are open-ended and require extended writing for the assignment.
Assignments should not be too difficult at the beginning of the course or they will discourage the learner. They should gradually increase in difficulty and ensure that the learners build up the necessary skills. For example, where essay answers are required in the final exam, the learner should gradually move from note answers, to single paragraphs, to the full essay.
The writer should also state how long he expects the learners to take over each question and what materials he requires to do it.
Assignments for the tutor may include:
- open-ended questions,
- letters,
- examples of forms to be filled,
- accounts to be drawn up,
- paragraph answers,
- essay questions,
- tables or graphs,
- comments or opinions,
- situational questions,
- descriptions or examples,
- reports,
- projects,
- experiments.
Here are three examples of written assignments from different courses.
- Describe how to test margarine for protein, fat and carbohydrate content.
- Conduct an experiment on friction and describe the results.
- In 500 words describe how an adult educator makes use of local resources.
For each assignment a detailed marking scheme is necessary. This is especially important when more than one tutor marks the work because, as far as possible, the marking must be uniform.
A good marking scheme includes:
- set answers or model answers,
- indications of possible areas of difficulty,
- a breakdown of marks for each question,
- the total marks for the assignment,
- reference to the unit, textbooks or further reading, if necessary.
From the learner's point of view, the activities are the most essential part of the unit. Through reading the unit the learners get information and ideas, but they learn through practice, repetition, re-enforcement, problem solving and applying their new knowledge and skills in activities. Therefore, the activities are the most important thing for the writer to think about when developing the unit.
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