IntroductionInteractive videodisc represents the fusion of video and microcomputer technology in an effort to exploit the strengths of each whilst minimising the weaknesses. New courseware designs, which do not rigidly structure learner responses, n be explored to complement this medium of instruction. Successful adoption of IV depends on developing quality courseware which takes into account the unique attributes of the technology. Experience to date indicates that IV designs are only just beginning to exploit the capacity of the technology. After making a cursory examination of the literature about IV it is tempting to conclude that a revolution in education and training has taken place. As Bosco (1984, p.13) observed six years ago, "Many of the articles and reports on IV which have been produced in the last few years are written from a stance of advocacy"; and many still are. A great number of claims made about IV use in training are speculative. A good example of such exuberance is this comment by Jonassen (1984, p.2), "There is little doubt that microcomputer-controlled videodisc systems represent the most potentially powerful communication device in the history of instructional communication"; or Young and Schieve (1984, p.4), "Videodisc technology may well revolutionise training in both public and private institutions by the end of the decade". Such rhetoric is similar to that which accompanied the introduction of microcomputers into training. Interactive videodisc technology has great potential for training but there are some important issues still to be addressed; progress is not imminent. A hybrid mediumThe term IV has different meanings for different people. Rapid development has resulted in a wide range of equipment and techniques complemented by a diversity of applications but there is agreement that, "Interactive video represents the fusion of video and computer technology" (Parsloe, 1983, p.83). Teh and Perry (1984, p.2) suggest that IV "... represents the synthesis of the instructional capabilities of television and the computer", while De Bloois (1982, p.33) suggests "... it is an entirely new medium with characteristics quite unlike each of the composites". The key point of this fusion, as Bosco (1984) points out, is that the information on a videodisc can be controlled by a microprocessor so that the system reacts to learner behaviours. Moving images, stills, computer graphics and printed information can be combined and structured into an instructional unit which can readily interact with the learner. Technical considerationsThe introduction and development of IV has been clouded by technological confusion. Much of the controversy has centred on technical formats which has served to confound trainers disposed to using the technology in much the same way the Beta/VHS video debate did. Such confusion is indicative of the way IV has been promoted - as a technology, rather than a potentially cost efficient method of improving human performance, or as a high quality entertainment medium. Rerecordable videodiscs Apart from the cost and inconvenience of mastering optical laserdiscs, the inability to record, erase and rerecord is frequently cited as a major drawback of IV. In effect videodiscs are seen by domestic consumers and many trainers as video recorders that cannot record. Reports of the imminent release of rerecordable videodisc began in 1985 (Laserfilm), and continued into 1989 (The Australian, 31/10/89) when Pioneer announced the invention of the world's first rerecordable videodisc. Sony estimate they will sell in excess of 250 000 ($US1b) rewritable optical drives in the USA this year (The Australian, 26/6/90, p.26). These drives can store large volumes of information, including graphic and audio visual material which can be retrieved, edited, updated and substituted at will. Eventually this technology will presumably be extended to full motion video. Despite developmental drawbacks it is apparent that video, audio and computer technologies will eventually converge into a form of rerecordable IV. Possessing the capacity to rerecord and duplicate videodisc cheaply will undoubtedly significantly enhance the appeal of the technology. With the advent of rerecordable videodiscs, IV designers and trainers will probably perceive the technology as more accessible but this will not necessarily result in radical cost reductions. Reductions in the cost of hardware and to a lesser extent mastering, will not alter instructional design, coding and television production costs, which will remain by far the most expensive component of any training initiatives (excluding off the shelf courseware) involving IV. The importance of these factors will be considered later in this paper. Like other optical disc formats, such as CD-1 and DVI, the likelihood of rerecordable interactive videodisc players developing into a robust market is at least 5-10 years away, if ever (Gery, 1989). Laservision is the preferred format for training at present because it provides fast access times and very high quality pictures with stereo sound that can be controlled by an external computer to provide interactivity, and to generate text and graphics. If the 54 000 frames were given over to text then there would be room to store 160 million words, or 655 000 A4 pages, or 1300 books. The whole of Encyclopaedia Britannica could be stored on two thirds of one side of a full motion videodisc (Gienke, 1984). While the one gigabyte data storage capabilities of 12 inch (30 centimetre) optical videodiscs is enormous in data storage terms it still only represents 36 minutes of video. An important feature of a videodisc is its ability to store a variety of multimedia materials (slides, film sequences, audio, etc.) on one format. Videodisc players with reasonably powerful on board microcomputers are already available but, despite claims to the contrary, their use is still restricted to dedicated tasks because programme information is often stored on the videodisc and therefore cannot be altered. Future units will no doubt incorporate a fully integrated microcomputer into the design. This should do away with costly and cumbersome interface devices and allow for a system that is simpler to operate. Features such as dual audio channel, stop motion, frame by frame review, either slow forward or reverse, auto stop, and rapid scan are also useful control devices. Problems of hardware incompatibility may seriously hinder training uses of IV equipment. Recent releases of multiformat players by all major manufacturers have gone some way towards a solution to this impasse. These players can automatically play eight or twelve inch NTSC or PAL videodiscs, video compact discs or audio compact discs. Multiformat optical disc players are half as expensive as previous laserdisc players and cost no more than an expensive CD player. Sales increases for multiformat optical disc players are expected to increase 40%, quadrupling to $4m by 1995 (The Australian, 17/10/89). Thus, economies of scale will begin to operate, further reducing the unit price of players. Overall familiarity with optical technology, especially to reproduce video, should significantly increase. The speed of innovation in videodisc hardware design makes compatibility an important issue. If wide usage of IV is to become a reality in training, a universal standard will be essential. Standardisation of format, when combined with the ability to rerecord, will lead to wide consumer acceptability. So rather than settling on one disc size and format, it seems that an interim solution for trainers wanting to avoid investing in equipment that may be rendered obsolete, will be to purchase competitively priced multiformat videodisc players. In the long term it is worth noting that all major manufacturers of optical discs have agreed to collaborate to develop common standards for interactive use of video and audio compact disc systems. Such cooperation is crucial to ensure information is standardised for translation to discs and the production of players (Screen Digest, March, 1986, p.57). In the interim IBM's InfoWindows has emerged as the de facto industry standard and looks like remaining so until a universal standard is developed. As Geber (1989) accurately asserts, the next 5 to 10 years are adequate horizons for those interested in using IV in training. Despite hype by some manufacturers, it is highly unlikely that formats with superior credentials to Laservision will be fully developed and accepted within the next five years. Albeit even material that has been designed and developed for Laservision can be readily transformed onto emerging formats. Robust instructional design will be capable of being transported to other formats. Anyway the subject matter of most designs will be obsolete within this time frame. Perhaps the most prudent decision organisations wishing to invest in IV can make is to purchase equipment capable of being upgraded in the future, or lease wherever possible. Which system? Decisions about which hardware option to choose should be based on considerations of industry standards, compatibility, flexibility, service, cost and courseware availability. The Videodisc Monitor (Feb, 1987) identified no less than 25 videodisc systems with varying degrees of compatibility. Five IV systems capable of operating the Laservision standard are worth considering in Australia. - Combination hardware. While it is possible to interface equipment from different manufacturers, it is desirable to minimise the number of vendors being dealt with. This simplifies the interconnection of equipment as well as the identification and rectification of faults. Also it simplifies the cabling of equipment as well as maintenance agreements. Of more consequence is the unproven capacity of some technologies to operate reliably together. Reliability and technical backup are crucial for interactive video. Separately, individual equipment items may have established reputations but it is often unsure how they will perform in concert over an extended period.
Assured growth paths for hardware are important as is warranty and maintenance for the major components. This is simplified if suppliers with strong reputations for customer service are used. Since price differentials between turnkey systems and combination systems are not that great anymore there seems to be no logical reason to consider equipment combinations which are unproven and will have potentially difficult warranty and maintenance. For some specific single applications, combination hardware may be cheaper than proprietary systems. However, initial savings on hardware may be dissipated by lack of access to off the shelf courseware. - VIEW - Sony. Hardware is available but there is only minimal local support. Considerable courseware (more than 200 off the shelf titles) is available and it can reportedly operate some InfoWindow courseware. The computer and videodisc player are integrated into a single unit.
- Electronic Information Delivery System (EIDS). Like the Sony VIEW system the EIDS is a computer and videodisc integrated into a single unit. As such, each EIDS unit is reported (Wolman, 1988) to be significantly cheaper than comparable units. EIDS was developed for the US Army and, while there is some generic courseware available, the bulk is intended for specialised purposes. There is no known distributor in Australia at present.
- Apple Macintosh. Some courseware is available. When used with hypertext existing discs could be repurposed, subject to copyright. At present the significant distributor backup for Macintosh is not yet matched by support for IV but will probably improve. Apple are beginning to provide some exciting multimedia options (Steel, 1990).
- InfoWindows. IBM hardware, local support, and considerable off the shelf courseware available (more than 450 titles).
Personal computer Laservision interface cards - Videologic. Consists of a computer card with genlock to synchronise video and computer signals. Advanced cards are now available and features switcheable NT'SC/PAL capability. Some courseware is available with some generic titles. Tends to be used by organisations wanting low end entry to IV for in house training. Videologic is not an IV system but interface hardware which is supported by a local distributor.
- M-Motion Adapter. IBM now offer an M-MOTION ADAPTER/A card which is specifically designed for the PS/2 and represents state of the art technology. Other important advantages include resident firmware to permit InfoWindow software to be used. The M-MOTION ADAPTER/A is capable of windowing and partitioning - both desirable instructional design features. The M-CONTROL PROGRAMME is intended to complement the M-MOTION ADAPTER/A and would be useful in exploiting the multimedia features of the interface card. For example, the M-CONTROL PROGRAMME permits multiple videodisc players to be interfaced and simplifies the creation of presentations.
At present the least risk option for trainers wishing to introduce IV into organisations in Australia is to opt for InfoWindows, which is considered by CBT training leaders (Geber, 1989; Wolman, 1988) to be the de facto industry standard. Sony's VIEW system is also worth considering, and has the added advantage of being capable of running some InfoWindows titles. Despite this advantage VIEW currently still has less than half of the courseware available for InfoWindows. Hardware costs are comparable. At present VIEW hardware and software are marketed separately and lack local or national backup. For organisations considering developing their own courseware, a Macintosh driven system offers potential.
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